Week 12 - Photojournalism

Contemporary journalism is filled with images (Zelizer, 2005). Photojournalism can be said to be a hybrid of photography and journalism. It is a from of journalism in the way that how the picture is accumulated, reworked and presented to tell a news story. With the famous quote "pictures are worth 1,000 words", Bulkholder (2002) points out that it is equivalent to 25 inches of print in the newspaper business. Images are on of the most influential forms of communication, mostly in journalism. One image, she argues, can summarize an event or person or motivate a nation. an image can distress people more than endless pages of print.

 Thich Quang Duc, a Buddhist monk from Vietnam burned himself to death to bring attention to the repressive policies of the Catholic Diem. 

 The "Pulitzer Prizer" winning photo taken in 1994 during the Sudan Famine.

 

Separation of different racial groups in daily life activities in the United States.

We can see how photojournalism has brought excitement and entertainment into news by these powerful pictures. But, as I mentioned in my Photography and Culture post, we as the audience must always be of images being presented to us. How true is the 'truthful news'?

This brings about ethical issues of photojournalism. A good photojournalist can create photos that can rock people out of nonchalance by representing reality. However to achieve this, certain expectations (of the picture) must be made as mentioned by Zelizer "many of the popular and professional evaluations of journalistic photographs are driven by the impact that they are thought to wield on the public." Photographs have always had the ability to manipulate the truth using certain methods of photo production. Captions in photographs for news reports can also distort the truth of an image; anchorage can shape dominant meanings.

 Published photo

 

Original photo

An Associate Press photo that featured on the USA Today website showed then Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice with weird menacing eyes, a result of too much doctoring. 

Creating false images and portraying them as factual photographs, with words, is seen as unethical in photojournalism. Why?

Because it regulates the truth rather than showing as it is. Thus the news will become subjective. The media does control the "truth" in a sense of them choosing how and what to present to the public. In a reaction to the many doctored pictures by news photographers, Kent Cooper (1947), an executive for the Associated Press wrote:

"This is a personal appeal for a new approach to pictures of people taken individually or in groups. I earnestly ask that you put a premium on the natural, unposed pictures of people. Obviously you cannot pose spontaneous shots without being deceitful. It is just as deceitful for a photographer to make a man or woman to look some way or act some way that is unnatural." (p. 48)

Hence as long as photojournalists are aware of the ethnics of the Fourth Estate, then the news can be a balance of being both entertaining and truthful.

References:

Johnson, B. M., Mayer, R. E., and Schmidt, F. (2004). Careers in photojournalism. Oppurtunities in photography careers (pp. 93-99).

Zelizer, B. (2005). Journalism through the camera’s eyes. In Allan, S. (ed.), Journalism: Critical issues (pp. 167-176). Berkshire: Open University Press.

Warburton, N. (1998). Electrical photojournalism in the age of the electronic darkroom. In Kieran, M. (ed.), Media ethics (pp.123-134). London: Routledge.

Week 11 - Information Graphics

Information graphics are visual representations of information, data or knowledge. Graphs include bar charts, line graphs and pie graphs which are generated from raw data and are made straightforward and stimulation with easy to read information prior to background knowledge of it. Lester (1995, 194) describes graphs as info-graphics that 'combine the individual satisfaction of words with the emotional power of visual'.

Above are examples of good info-graphics which are both stimulating and require less time to understand. A good communication professional must have the ability to construct raw information into something that is visually simple yet presents all the important information for easy understanding. Edward Tufte (1983, p. 51) states "graphical excellence is that which gives to the viewer the greatest number of ideas in the shortest time, with the least amount of ink in the smallest amount of space".

However, sometimes the media uses information graphics to trick audience into seeing what they want them to believe. Statistics are often presented in a form of graphs which, by itself, serves as a powerful weapon of persuasion because graphs are seen indisputable and 'true' by the public.

Alex Fisher has mentioned in his book 'Critical Thinking' that "statistics are evidence expressed in numbers. Such evidences can seem quite impressive because of the numbers make evidence appear to be very scientific, often do, lie. They do not necessarily prove what they appear to prove" (Fisher, 2001).

Here are examples of deceiving information graphics:

25.5% is bigger than 74.5%? In what world?!

How can there be 353%?! 256%?! This is obviously a way to create illusions of 'greater' numbers.

Lester has written his book "Visual Communication: Images with messages" that infographics with high quality should have a significant message to communicate, must present information in a clear, accurate and efficient manner. They also should not offend the intelligence of readers and always tell the truth (Lester, 1995). These are the basic guidelines for an ethical infograph. Truth in the infographics are very important since 'images generally have a greater emotional impact than words, the potential to mislead with visual message is higher' (Lester, 1995, 208).

Therefore, the second graph in the tutorial question was unethical because it presents the wrong numbers in the x-axis thus interfering with the graphics (bar chart) which made it look there are more than what it really is.



References:

Lester, P.M. (1995). Information Graphics. Visual communication: Images with messages (pp. 187-211). California: Wadsworth Publishing.

Pettersson, R. (2002). Information Design. An Introduction. United States of America: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

Week 10 - Are we human or are we dancers?

Please do not take my title seriously, it is an inside joke my friend and I made when we did this topic. 'Are we human or are we dancers?' is a song title by The Killers which asks us if we really are humans, or dancers who follow only 'choreographs' and cannot think for ourselves.

Completely different from what I am about to talk about. The real question should be; are we cyborgs?

I know I am.

I bet you're wearing clothes right now (at least I hope so). Is your smartphone anywhere near you? Are you using your laptop now?

We are living in the modern age where technology has become more than a commodity, rather it is  a necessity to our ways of life. we need cellphones to call people far away from us. We need television for entertainment, to watch the news, to be up to date with the Walking Dead. We need cameras to capture meaningful moments. I need this laptop to create this post for my Analyzing Visual Communication blog assignment.

How far can we go with technology?

Technology has become our constant companion since the birth of it. No doubt it has made our lives much more easier especially with the endless gadgets and the more advanced it will become, the more dependent we will be on it. We are humans but our unbeatable bond with technology makes us machine as well. We are therefore half-human and half-machine; cyborgs. The term 'cyborg' was coined in 1960. "A cyborg is a cybernetic organism, a hybrid of machine and organism, a creature of social reality as well as a creature of friction" (Haraway, 2000).

 By being cyborgs, we are able to explore with ourselves especially in cyberspace where our identities are not fixed, but created according to our desires and vision. Cyberspace is claimed to be, according to  guruesque William Gibson, a 'consensual hallucination'. Sherman and Judkins tell it as "truly technology of miracles and dreams". Virtual reality enables us to play God (Robin, 2000).

Users can bring life to identities that fulfull their 'ideal ego'. Thus people love to immerse themselves in this illusion of 'reality' because according to Krueger in Artificial Reality II:

"In the ultimate artificial reality, physical appearance will be completely composoble- It would be intrusive to see how changed physical attributes altered your interactions with other people. Not only might people treat you differently, but you might find yourself treating them differently as well."

Virtual allows you to release the 'real you'. We can see this in Maxis's famous game The Sims which was released in 2000. This life-stimulation game is highly addictive because users are able to control one or more virtual persons (Sims) through their daily lives. Other games include Skyrim (PS3), Second Life (Internet) and World of Warcraft (WoW by Blizzard) which have real-time settings to create that real-life feel for users and, as an addition, allows us to interact with other players. Through these games, communication is easy because we are communication with out 'ideal ego/self'.

 
So apart from phone calls, text-messagings, IMs and video-chats through social networks like Facebook, Skype and Messenger, we are able to communicate with each other through technology. Think about it, we can dial someone's number on the other side of the world and in a matter of seconds, he will pick up and say 'Hello'.
 
With the advances of technology, it could be possible to communicate without body. Like in the famous quote by Morpheus from  The Matrix; "the body cannot live without the mind". Meaning to say the body is just a medium or a vessel.

References:

Robins, K. (2000). Cyberspace and the world we live in. In Bell, D. and Kennedy, B.M. (eds.), The cybercultures reader (pp.77095). London: Routledge.

Fung, A. (2006). Bridging cyberlife and real life: A study of online communities in Hong Kong. In Silver, D.M. and Adrienne Steve, J. (eds.), Critical cyberculture studies (pp. 129-139). New York: New York University Press.

Week 9 - Cinema and Television

In this modern era, cinema and television have become amongst the most common forms of media. We are bombarded with continuous types information which is what Hartley describes as a 'socio-culturally meaningful phenomenon' (1999). He explains that it is a history of the discourses and practices which enclosed, filled, shaped, disciplined, enabled and obstructed its development. What is shown through cinema and television is an access to 'reality' (Stadler, 1990). However, we need cultural literacy to understand and analyze and judge what is 'real' because we don't want to end up like this:

Cultural literacy is described as both an understanding of meaning systems and an ability to work through those systems within different cultural contexts. It is virtually impracticable to describe and analyse what is happening in any communication conditions or practice without using the concept of cultural literacy (Shirato and Yell, 2000, p.1).


 According to Harley, textual tradition is important to understand how we acquire cultural literacy. The word 'traditional' can be said as our habits that we have adapted to thus we have unconsciously manipulated this mechanism of adaptation to allow us to gain cultural literacy (Harley, 1999, p.60). Cultural semiotician Yuri Lotman (1990: 273) stated:

"The individual human intellect does not have a monopoly in the work of thinking. Semiotics systems, both separately and together in the integrated unity of the semiosphere, both synchronically and in all the depth of historical memory, carry out intellectual operations, preserve, rework and increase the store of information."

As so being said, cultural literacy is the foundation of our understanding. It contains rules and customs that form our  understanding of language. It is a shared knowledge that allows us to comprehend a context of a discourse better. Cinema and television e therefore are mediums from which we can obtain knowledge and better our cultural literacy.

Thus the more cultural literacy we have, the easier for us to understand text without much cognitive problem. However, Harley (1990) argues that information broadcasted in cinema and television are under formal education institutions, government instituitions and critical instituitions. Information provided is controlled to ensure viewers have an uniform ideology. Hence, viewer must be more critical and gain critical literacy to understand and be able to question the represented information.

I have selected a movie trailer called Precious (2009). This movie is set in Harley in 1987. It is the story of Claireece "Precious" Jones (Gabourey Sidibe), a 16 year old African-American girl. She is pregnant with her second child by her nonexistent father. At home, she is tormented by her mother (Mo'Nique), an angry woman who abuses her emotionally and physically. School is not a safe place either and Precious has reached the ninth grade with good marks, however she is illiterate.(Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rx-3jYJkUWQ)

The critique I have for this trailer is the representation of African-American women in America in the given condition. Are they always seen dressed like that? The language is also something to touch on because given the living condition and the lack of educational support, Precious and her mother communicate differently. However, the portrayal of the given language used is very stereotypical to African-American people from the ghetto.

What about the abuse? Emotional, physical and sexual abuse are all represented here. Are they represented in biased to American context? Is that how all abuse look like, are they no other ways of representing them? 

These stereotypical representations of 'reality' is in fact ways for producers to follow the 'norm' however, this causes problems because it makes viewers/public agree unconsciously that THAT is the 'norm' itself especially for us Bruneians who have never been to America.

If my mother, who I would personally say has a narrow cultural literacy, were to watch Precious then go to America (whatever the year may be), she would totally avoid visiting Harlem. Yikes!

References: 

Hartley, J. (1999). Knowledge, television and the "textual tradition". Uses of Television (pp. 55-70). London and New York: Routledge.

Schirato, T. and Yell, S. (2000). Communication and Culture. Communication and Cultural Literacy: An Introduction (2nd ed.). (pp. 1-3). Victoria; BPA Print Group.

Week 8 - Photography and Culture

The dawn of photography began in 1827 when Joseph Nicéphore Niépce, the first successful photographer took a shot of his courtyard using an asphalt that solidifies when in contact with sunlight and then placed onto a glass plate. He called his product Heliographs, after the Greek "of the sun" (Leggat, 1999). 

People became obsessed with "prosthetically" embedding memory into pictures because it last longer than our biological memory. According to Wells (1997), photography verifies our experience of 'being there', which is not merely one of visiting an unfamiliar place, but of capturing the authentic experience of a strange place. Photographs are records and documents which pin down the changing world of appearance". When we take a photograph, it immortalize the scene and memory. We capture nostalgic moments and produce them forever in the form of pictures. 

So if we say photography capture moments, then does it show the truth?

  

Picture 1

Picture 2

Picture 1 is a combination of a before and after edit of a woman. Which woman is real? How would viewer distinguish between the two? Because with the brilliance of technology, we can now manipulate pictures.

Is there such an animal as Picture 2? Again, technology is so advanced that photo-manipulation can create 'real pictures'. In this era, more than half of us have never seen a saber tooth tiger, but in fact we know the picture below represents a saber tooth tiger.

Hence, the public should be more skeptical about every image that is presented to them because the power of the photograph lies on the hands of the creator of the photographer. Susan Sontag stated that the photographer is relatively powerful thus may be seen as predator. She also mentioned that photographers are not necessarily sentimental, or candid, they may be used for policing or incrimination.

However to answer the issue of whether photography is a culture analysis, we must look into what is being captured (person, place and circumtance) and who captures it. 

Celia Lury argues in her book 'Prosthetic Culture' (1998) that we live in a world where it is no longer possible to survive without technological prosthetics. Hence photographs are apart of culture because it captures the past and present and with digital photography, it may be even manipulated to create a futuristic representation of the upcoming culture.

"It is seeing which establishes our place in the surrounding world, we explain that world with words, but words can never undo the fact that we are surrounded by it. The relationship between what we see and what we know is never settled" (Berger, 1972: 7).

The photograph above indicates the clothing, scene and relationship between the two boys hence showing us a culture

This advert demonstrates our culture in the sense of us living in the "fast lane"

This is a recent photo taken of me and my friends which shows the Bruneian culture in terms of physical features, clothing, facial and body gestures. It shows the Bruneian youth culture

The picture above shows the American society of driving big cars hence shows their culture.

Even the Picture 1 is cultural critique because it shows our digital-age where we manipulate pictures to suit what we describe 'attractive' in our culture. Picture 2 shows our advances in technology and photo-manipulation skills that connotes our Information Age culture.

References:

Batchen. G, (2004). Forget me not: Photography and rememberance (pp. 6-16). New York: Princeton architectural press.

Wells, L. (1997). Thinking about photography. Photography: a critical introduction (pp. 24-54) London: Routledge.

Week 7 - Why is narrative important?

"Narrative starts with the very story of mankind. There is not, there has never been anywhere any people without narrative; all classes of human groups have their stories.. Like life itself, it is there, international, transhistorical, transcultural" (Barthes, 1975).

A narrative is basically story-telling. In a narrative there has to be the story itself and the discourse. The story is the content of what is being told which originally exists as an idea thus it needs discourse, which is the arrangement of how the idea is structured to tell the story. A narrative discourse is an account of events that applies verbs of speech, motion and action to describe a series of events that are dependent on one another thus the discourse is concerned with how the narrative is being presented.


Genre is a part of discourse. The narrative, that is the content, for both film and book can be the same but due to the fact that they are in two different mediums, it changes the way the story is being told for example in books there are no complete visual aids as opposed to films. Hence, readers will have to personally interpret certain actions and events. As a result, it changes the affectiveness of the story on the audience.

against

Some say the book is better, some say otherwise. Why?

Narratives are important because in any medium or genre, they are ways to constructing and representing lived experience (Huisman, 2005). In order for a visual image to be successfully shaped, narratives allow the producer to express their points of view (from their perspective) in a way to ensure the audience will understand and react according to their expectancy.

Mieke Bal wrote her book "Narratology: Introduction to the theory of narrative": narrative has 3 parts; fabula, plot and text. 

• The fabula refers to the what and why of the story. 
• The plot is developed based on selection of fabula to form a constant and comprehensible whole. 
• The text is no other than the representation of details through a series of language signs by a proxy.

Greek philosopher Aristotle decribed in his "Poetics" a set of guidelines to style an 'ideal narrative'. The plot must be a "whole" with a beginning, middle and end.


This short movie below demonstrates Aristotle's narrative theory as it comprises of a beginning, middle and end.

"Heavenly Appeals" by David Lisbe (Youtube)

Narrative in media is separated in 2 different types of theory; structuralist and post-structuralist. The Aristotlian narrative structure is structuralist. It follows the conventions of the chronological sequence of the events which includes the subject, the framework and discourse and temporality and focalization. (Huisman, 2005). It focuses on linguistic structures that make the story as it is. The post-structuralist however relates to the study of the actual story; what the information is and what is being presented. 

"Tick-Tock" by Ien Chi (Youtube)

"Tick-Tock" is an example of a post-structuralist narrative short film. It does not follow Aristotle's narrative structure but it has fabula, plot and text. Also, it emphasizes the information conveyed. It enables viewers to interpret their own conclusion and create their own ideas about the content presented.

As we can see from below, this holiday advert has narrative and follows the narrative structure.

Without narrative or these set of guidelines, advertisers would not be able to promote their product successful and the audience will not be able to understand or receive the message as what was intended by the advertisers.

This advertisement below is considered a post-structuralist or post-modern advertisement because it is modern in the sense of having no big title of the product presented along with price, company, location and etc. Thus it is not in the norm. Alternatively, it just shows the audience the benefit of buying this particular product. Narrative is important in advertisement because it helps advertisers to come up with ideas on how to create better adverts to persuade potential buyers.

Pilot advertisement

 As Barthes says "narrative start with the very story of mankind," it shows us how narratives has always been and will always be an important part of our lives. It allows us to understand and be understood.

References:

Huisman, R. (2005). Narrative concepts. In Fulton, H., Huisman, R., Murphet, J. and Dunn. (eds.), Narrative and Media (pp. 11-27). Cambridge: Cambridge Universty Press.

Lamarque, P. (1994). Narrative an invention: The limits of fictionality. In Nash. C. (ed.), Narrative in culture (pp. 131-132). New York and London: Routledge.

Week 6 - Rhetoric in Advertising

As studied by scholars, rhetoric concerns with how things are being said rather than what are being said. The style of presentation is more focused on than the content (McQuarrie and Phillips, 2007).

While rhetorics are traditionally verbal and written, we can easily spot them in films, comics, images and  advertising which uses both images and words.

I have selected an advertisement by CORDAID which is a dutch development agency with aims to fight poverty and abolish inequality. The picture presents a person posing with a handbag. The person is possibly from Africa because of the background resembling features of african landscape. There is also words found near the handbag saying 'HANDBAG € 32.-' and 'Food for a week €4.-' Based on the information given, we can tell that the argument is that donating food to Africa which could lasts them for a week is cheaper than buying a handbag. The explanation of how we can come up with that lies in the words found on the advertisement which acts as an anchor. Although it does not directly states that donating food is cheaper or handbag is expensive, it does create a contrast between these two elements due to the involvement numbers (price). 

 

This is what Aristotle's logic is all about. According to him, the persuasive strategy of rhetoric is called enthymemes which are incomplete forms of syllogism that is a deceptive form of argument. 

A syllogism is described as "a particular kind of argument containing three categorical propositions, two of them premises, one a conclusion." (Kahane, 1990). For example:

A is based on B

B is based on C

Then, as a conclusion C is based on A

Aristotle commented that there are two types of syllogisms, perfect and imperfect. A rhetoric is the imperfect syllogism because it does not gives the reader an exact equation for them to come up with an perfect conclusion, thus creating argument. In the case of the above advertisement:

A handbag costs €32

Food for a week costs €4

Thus:

Is food cheaper than the cost of the handbag? (argument)

Is handbag more expensive than food? (argument)

Moreover, the images come into play. Since it is based in Africa where poverty strives, the reader may conclude that they should donate food rather than buy an expensive handbag. 

Advertising companies purposely leave a proposition unstated which is very important to the logic. This draws the audience to participate in its own persuasion by filling in the unexpressed premise (Blair, 2004). This is very effective because by using rhetorics, audience will think for themselves (argue) and feel that they are the ones making a decision and not pressure by the advertisers. However, CORDAID ensures their audiences thinking by stating a brief information on how to donate and lastly gives another rhetorical text 'People In Need' on the bottom. This technique is how advertisers persuade their audience.

This concept of personal relevance is a psychological context (McQuarrie and Phillips, 2007). Advertisers give a proposition which is relevant to the audience (handbag and food) thus acquiring their attention because the audience feel a connection between them and the advertisers.

References:

Blair, J. A. (2004). The rhetoric of visual arguments. In Hill, C.A, and Helmers, M. H. (eds). Defining visual rhetorics (pp. 41-61). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbau, Associaties.

McQuarrie, E. F. and Phillips, B. J. (eds) (2007). Advertising rhetoric: An introduction. Go figure! New dimensions in advertising rhetoric (pp. 3-18). New York: M. E. Sharpe, Inc.

Kahane, H. (1990). Logic and Philosophy: A Modern Introduction (pp. 270). Wadsworth Publishing Co.

Wiener, J. (1995). Aristotle's Syllogism: Logic Takes Form. Retrieved 11th September 2012 from http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/GreekScience/Students/Jordana/LOGIC.html

Gestalt Effect and Schema Theory

 Everyday we experience the life through our five senses; touch, hearing sight, taste and smell. 

The hardness of a rock, the sound of chirping, the sight of the blue ocean, the sweetness of an apple and the aroma of coffee are all example visual sensations that trigger nerve cells inside our sense organs. From there, signals are then passed towards the brain allowing us to make sense of them all. These kinds of sensations are all combined to create perceptions and that is how we understand the world as we know it. 

The idea of the Gestalt effect was brought forth by psychologist Max Wertheimer which specifically refers to the visual sensations and perceptions. He is the man behind this important statement: "The whole is different from the sum of its parts." Wertheimer created five principles regarding the Gestalt effect called The Principles of Perpetual Organization.

Proximity:

When elements are sited close together, we tend to perceived them as a group.

Even though each object differ in size, shape, colour and etc, they will still be seen as a group due to their proximity to one another.

                                                    

Objects that are grouped together can create illusion of familiar shapes, even without the objects touching.

 

Different shapes assorted together to form the letter U.

The illusion of a flower created by different shapes and colours.

Similarity:

We often notice objects that are alike to one another. In fact, we find pleasure in similarity especially as a mind-exercising game.

An example of a "Spot The Difference" game.

Is the dissimilar arrangement of the tiles bothering you?

So due to our quirk, we tend to group objects that are equivalent in size, shape, colour and etc. 

Most people can see a triangle made out of 9 circles and a square made out of 33 squares.

(I can't help but feel that you will recount the number of squares, please do.)

We see columns of squares and circles rather than rows of square-circles because of their similarity in shape.

Common Fate:

This law refers to the theory that we see visual directions in text cognitively. 

A viewer mentally groups five arrows or five raised hands pointing to the ky because they all point in the same direction. An arrow or a hand pointed in opposite direction will create tension, because the viewer will not see it as part of the upwardly directed whole. (Lester, 2006). 

We can see where the cats are going.

Pragnanz (Figure/Ground):

The principle demonstrates our natural likelihood in distinguishing some figures from others in a whole text based on different features like colour, shape, size and form. The figure is the main text while the ground is the background.

Like the pun? There is an obvious difference between the "woman" and the "baby".

This picture can be of two individuals facing one another or a chalice or both.

When one or more things are the figure, the rest will be the ground. Hence it can change according the viewer's perception of which is the figure.

Closure:

As what the title says, we tend to 'close' up images even with missing objects. Our mind creates logic by thinking that the missing objects or gaps are part of the text itself hence creating a different whole.

We can see a rectangle, a circle and a triangle even without the lines touching.

You are being watched. Our brain creates logic by ensuring to us that this is an eye. However, the image is made of a circle and two crescents.

The Schema theory

Why do people view things as they do? Why isn't all text similar to what you and the rest of the world know?

Marvin Minsky (1927-Present) has said that when an individual encounters a new setting, he or she will select the closest possible memory called a Frame that relates to the foreign object. 

We see things based on how we organize everything in our lives, for example people, settings, objects, animals, languages, systems and skills. This is all built by our personal experiences hence each schema will differ from one another.

This can be exemplified as me knowing more about my Kampong Pasai because I grew up there hence I have a more detailed schema of Kampong Pasai as opposed to those living further like Kampong Mentiri.

The Top-Frame and Lower-Frame

The Top-Frame of the text is always the ones that are true and the Lower-Frame contain many details or slots that can be modified.

The Top-Frame of a car are the tires, the windows, the doors and the spotlights.

The Lower-Frame are the colour, the design, what is it made of and so on.

Schema Congruity and Incongruity in advertisements

Congruity in an advert means that it is acceptable, friendly, familiar and has a lower congruity process.

As you might have guessed, incongruent adverts are strange, often controversial and acquires a higher congruity process.

References:

Spoken Falls Community College (n.d.). The Gestalt Principles. Retrieved September 15th, 2012 at http://graphicdesign.spokanefalls.edu/tutorials/process/gestaltprinciples/gestaltprinc.htm

Desktop Publishing (n.d.). Gestalt Principles. Retrieved September 15th, 2012 at http://facweb.cs.depaul.edu/sgrais/gestalt_principles.htm

Lester, P.M. (1995). The sensual and perceptual theories of visual communication. Visual communication: Images with messages (pp.52-58). California: Wadsworth Publishing.

Semiotics elaborated

A language theory as "a naming-process only--a list of words, each corresponding to the thing that it names" was discarded by Ferdinand De Saussure (1916).

According to him, such a theory:

 Assumes that ready-made ideas exist before words; it does not tell us whether a name is vocal or psychological in nature . . . finally it lets us assume that the linking of a name and a thing is a very simple operation.

Saussure continues to explain that:

The linguistic unit is a double entity, one formed by the associating of two terms.

These two terms are known as the signifier, the sound-image or representation of the particular text, for example, a word on a sign, and image or even a body gesture. The signified is the meaning or the idea produced. However the connection between the signifier and the signified is at random. This is discussed by Sausser as he argues that "the link between [signifier] and [signified] is arbitrary." 

There are no ture reasons why a car is called a car and why the concept of a car is linked with the car and this is confirmed by the existence of multiple languages. Also, signified(s) of certain signifiers are arbitrary. There are no rules or orders fixing a signifier and signified together.

Here is a simple example of a signifier and a signified:

The signifier is the sound-image of a sign with  'Welcome, We Are Open' (found at the entrance of Cheezbox, Gadong)

The signified is that we can go inside the restaurant to dine or purchase food. It can also mean that the employees are able to tend to us (customers)

Connotation involves the cultural meaning behind the signifier and it is always in multiples. An easy example would be the colour blue as the signifier. The connotation would be based on where the colour is placed/found. If it were to be a room painted blue, it *could connote boy, masculinity. 

On a dress however, it *could mean that it is soft, innocence or the sky (pure, infinite, high) because it is on a dress, which affects the connotation of the colour blue.

*Note: connotations varies based on people, situation/society and context.

References:

Bryson, M. (n.d.). Ferdinand De Saussure--Course In General Linguistics. Retrieved September 15th, 2012 from California State University, Northridge, Academic Website: (http://www.brysons.net/academic/saussure.html

Scott, A. (2001). Ferdinand de Saussure's Course in General Linguistics. Retrieved September 15th, 2012 from http://www.angelfire.com/md2/timewarp/saussure.html

Ferdinand de Saussure , from Course in General Linguistics. (n.d.). Retrieved September 15th, 2012 from http://faculty.smu.edu/nschwart/seminar/saussure.htm